This Article  • Full text  • PDF  • Reply to article  • Send to a friend  • Save in My Folder  • Save to citation manager  • Permissions  Citing Articles  • Citation map  • Citing articles on HighWire  • Citing articles on Web of Science (516)  • Contact me when this article is cited  Related Content  • Similar articles in this journal  Topic Collections  • Stress  • Violence and Human Rights  • Violence and Human Rights, Other  • Alert me on articles by topic  Social Bookmarking   What's this?

The 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma

Naomi Breslau, PhD; Ronald C. Kessler, PhD; Howard D. Chilcoat, ScD; Lonni R. Schultz, PhD; Glenn C. Davis, MD; Patricia Andreski, MA

Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55:626-632.

Background  The study estimates the relative importance of specific types of traumas experienced in the community in terms of their prevalence and risk of leading to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Methods  A representative sample of 2181 persons in the Detroit area aged 18 to 45 years were interviewed by telephone to assess the lifetime history of traumatic events and PTSD, according to DSM-IV . Posttraumatic stress disorder was assessed with respect to a randomly selected trauma from the list of traumas reported by each respondent, using a modified version of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule, Version IV, and the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview.

Results  The conditional risk of PTSD following exposure to trauma was 9.2%. The highest risk of PTSD was associated with assaultive violence (20.9%). The trauma most often reported as the precipitating event among persons with PTSD (31% of all PTSD cases) was sudden unexpected death of a loved one, an event experienced by 60% of the sample, and with a moderate risk of PTSD (14.3%). Women were at higher risk of PTSD than men, controlling for type of trauma.

Conclusions  The risk of PTSD associated with a representative sample of traumas is less than previously estimated. Previous studies have overestimated the conditional risk of PTSD by focusing on the worst events the respondents had ever experienced. Although recent research has focused on combat, rape, and other assaultive violence as causes of PTSD, sudden unexpected death of a loved one is a far more important cause of PTSD in the community, accounting for nearly one third of PTSD cases.

From the Departments of Psychiatry (Drs Breslau, Chilcoat, and Davis and Ms Andreski) and Biostatistics/Research Epidemiology (Drs Breslau, Chilcoat, and Schultz), Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Mich; and the Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (Dr Kessler).

CiteULike    Connotea    Del.icio.us    Digg    Reddit    Technorati    Twitter     What's this?

THIS ARTICLE HAS BEEN CITED BY OTHER ARTICLES

From Trauma to PTSD: Beliefs About Sensations, Symptoms, and Mental Illness
Spoont et al.
Qual Health Res 2009;19:1456-1465.
ABSTRACT  

The Epidemiology of Trauma, PTSD, and Other Posttrauma Disorders
Breslau
Trauma Violence Abuse 2009;10:198-210.
ABSTRACT  

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Nocturnal Blood Pressure Dipping in Young Adult African Americans
Mellman et al.
Psychosom. Med. 2009;71:627-630.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

A Test of Structural Invariance of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in Female Survivors of Sexual and/or Physical Abuse or Assault
Hetzel-Riggin
Traumatology 2009;15:46-59.
ABSTRACT  

Gender Differences in PTSD in Israeli Youth Exposed to Terror Attacks
Laufer and Solomon
J Interpers Violence 2009;24:959-976.
ABSTRACT  

Evaluation of Lifetime Trauma Exposure and Physical Health in Women With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder or Major Depressive Disorder
Dennis et al.
Violence Against Women 2009;15:618-627.
ABSTRACT  

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: From Phenomenology to Clinical Practice
Benedek and Ursano
Focus 2009;7:160-175.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Performance in Practice: Clinical Tools to Improve the Care of Patients with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Duffy et al.
Focus 2009;7:186-203.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Suicide Attempts in a Community Sample of Urban American Young Adults
Wilcox et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009;66:305-311.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

If She Is Not a Victim, Does That Mean She Was Not Traumatized?: Evaluation of Predictors of PTSD Symptomatology Among College Rape Victims
Littleton and Henderson
Violence Against Women 2009;15:148-167.
ABSTRACT  

Toward Validation of the Diagnosis of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
North et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2009;166:34-41.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Trauma, Resilience, and Recovery in a High-Risk African-American Population
Alim et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2008;165:1566-1575.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Prevalence of Mental Disorder and Associated Factors in Civilian Guatemalans With Disabilities Caused By the Internal Armed Conflict
Herrera Rivera et al.
Int J Soc Psychiatry 2008;54:414-424.
ABSTRACT  

Reduction of State Victim Compensation Disparities in Disadvantaged Crime Victims Through Active Outreach and Assistance: A Randomized Trial
Alvidrez et al.
AJPH 2008;98:882-888.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

A Second Look at Prior Trauma and the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Effects of Subsequent Trauma: A Prospective Epidemiological Study
Breslau et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008;65:431-437.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Intensive Remedial Identity Work: Responses to Workplace Bullying Trauma and Stigmatization
Lutgen-Sandvik
Organization 2008;15:97-119.
ABSTRACT  

Terrorism, Acute Stress, and Cardiovascular Health: A 3-Year National Study Following the September 11th Attacks
Holman et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008;65:73-80.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Incidence of Drug Problems in Young Adults Exposed to Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Do Early Life Experiences and Predispositions Matter?
Reed et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007;64:1435-1442.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Building Resistance, Resilience, and Recovery in the Wake of School and Workplace Violence
Nucifora et al.
dmphp 2007;1:S33-S37.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Integrating smoking cessation into mental health care for post-traumatic stress disorder
McFall et al.
Clin Trials 2007;4:178-189.
ABSTRACT  

Parental Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms as a Moderator of Child's Acute Biological Response and Subsequent Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in Pediatric Injury Patients
Nugent et al.
J Pediatr Psychol 2007;32:309-318.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Post-traumatic stress disorder in childhood
Tareen et al.
EDUCATION AND PRACTICE 2007;92:ep1-ep6.
FULL TEXT  

Treatment of Acute Posttraumatic Stress Disorder With Brief Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Sijbrandij et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2007;164:82-90.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Childhood Antecedents of Exposure to Traumatic Events and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Storr et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2007;164:119-125.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Recent fear is resistant to extinction
Maren and Chang
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006;103:18020-18025.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Intelligence and Other Predisposing Factors in Exposure to Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Follow-up Study at Age 17 Years.
Breslau et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006;63:1238-1245.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Personality Traits, Coping Style, and Perceived Threat as Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder After Exposure to a Terrorist Attack: A Prospective Study
Gil and Caspi
Psychosom. Med. 2006;68:904-909.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Smoking as a complex but critical covariate in neurobiological studies of posttraumatic stress disorders: a review
Rasmusson et al.
J Psychopharmacol 2006;20:693-707.
ABSTRACT  

Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Rape- and War-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder With a Female, Bosnian Refugee
Schulz et al.
Clinical Case Studies 2006;5:191-208.
ABSTRACT  

Gender Differences and Acute Stress Reactions Among Rescue Personnel 36 to 48 Hours After Exposure to Traumatic Event
Ben-Ezra et al.
Traumatology 2006;12:139-142.
ABSTRACT  

Posttraumatic Stress in Youth Experiencing Illnesses and Injuries: An Exploratory Meta-Analysis
Kahana et al.
Traumatology 2006;12:148-161.
ABSTRACT  

Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in a Community Sample of Low-Income Pregnant Women
Smith et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2006;163:881-884.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Inconsistency in reporting potentially traumatic events
HEPP et al.
Br. J. Psychiatry 2006;188:278-283.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Predicting Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms From Pretraumatic Risk Factors: A 2-Year Prospective Follow-Up Study in Firefighters
Heinrichs et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2005;162:2276-2286.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

The Structure of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Latent Class Analysis in 2 Community Samples
Breslau et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005;62:1343-1351.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Physical Comorbidity Among Female Children and Adolescents: Results From Service-Use Data
Seng et al.
Pediatrics 2005;116:e767-e776.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Prevalence of Mental Disorders and Utilization of Mental Health Services in Two American Indian Reservation Populations: Mental Health Disparities in a National Context
Beals et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2005;162:1723-1732.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Biological Underpinnings of Health Alterations in Women With PTSD: A Sex Disparity
Gill et al.
Biol Res Nurs 2005;7:44-54.
ABSTRACT  

Longitudinal Course of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in a Community Sample of Adolescents and Young Adults
Perkonigg et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2005;162:1320-1327.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

The Epidemiology of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder after Disasters
Galea et al.
Epidemiol Rev 2005;27:78-91.
FULL TEXT  

Social Epidemiology of Trauma Among 2 American Indian Reservation Populations
Manson et al.
AJPH 2005;95:851-859.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Posttraumatic Stress Responses in Children: Awareness and Practice Among a Sample of Pediatric Emergency Care Providers
Ziegler et al.
Pediatrics 2005;115:1261-1267.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Benefits of Combined Psychological and Medical Therapy for Treating an Individual With Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Reeder and Montgomery
Clinical Case Studies 2005;4:160-172.
ABSTRACT  

Cognitive Model of the Maintenance and Treatment of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Applied to Children and Adolescents
Vickers
Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry 2005;10:217-234.
ABSTRACT  

The Role of Peritraumatic Dissociation and Gender in the Association Between Trauma and Mental Health in a Palestinian Community Sample
Punamaki et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2005;162:545-551.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Psychological Distress of Nurses in Taiwan Who Worked During the Outbreak of SARS
Chen et al.
Psychiatr. Serv. 2005;56:76-79.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Behavioral Interventions for Recent Trauma: Empirically Informed Practice Guidelines
Gray and Litz
Behav Modif 2005;29:189-215.
ABSTRACT  

Psychometric Properties of the Life Events Checklist
Gray et al.
Assessment 2004;11:330-341.
ABSTRACT  

Hippocampal Volume in Adult Burn Patients With and Without Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Winter and Irle
Am. J. Psychiatry 2004;161:2194-2200.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Depression Following Trauma: Understanding Comorbidity
O'Donnell et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2004;161:1390-1396.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Prevalence of Trauma, PTSD, and Dissociation in Court-Referred Adolescents
Brosky and Lally
J Interpers Violence 2004;19:801-814.
ABSTRACT  

Community Violence and PTSD in Selected South African Townships
Dinan et al.
J Interpers Violence 2004;19:727-742.
ABSTRACT  

Age of traumatisation as a predictor of post-traumatic stress disorder or major depression in young women
Maercker et al.
Br. J. Psychiatry 2004;184:482-487.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Anxiety, Depressive, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorders Among Mothers of Pediatric Survivors of Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation
Manne et al.
Pediatrics 2004;113:1700-1708.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Sleep in Lifetime Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Community-Based Polysomnographic Study
Breslau et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004;61:508-516.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Acquisition, Recognition, Course, and Treatment
Davidson et al.
J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosi. 2004;16:135-147.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Trauma in Youth in Juvenile Detention
Abram et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004;61:403-410.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Psychiatric Morbidity Following Injury
O'Donnell et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2004;161:507-514.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Testimonial Psychotherapy for Adolescent Refugees: a Case Series
Lustig et al.
Transcultural Psychiatry 2004;41:31-45.
ABSTRACT  

Diagnosis and management of anxiety disorders.
Shelton
JAOA: Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 2004;104:S2-S5.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Female Veterans: Association With Self-reported Health Problems and Functional Impairment
Dobie et al.
Arch Intern Med 2004;164:394-400.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Health-Related Quality of Life in Long-Term Survivors of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Kapfhammer et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2004;161:45-52.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Recognizing post-traumatic stress disorder
Sher
QJM 2004;97:1-5.
FULL TEXT  

The Relationship of Borderline Personality Disorder to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Traumatic Events
Golier et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2003;160:2018-2024.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Good grief: a medical challenge
Klein and Alexander
Trauma 2003;5:261-271.
ABSTRACT  

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Connor and Butterfield
Focus 2003;1:247-262.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and the Incidence of Nicotine, Alcohol, and Other Drug Disorders in Persons Who Have Experienced Trauma
Breslau et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:289-294.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders Among Bereaved Survivors of a Disastrous Earthquake in Taiwan
Kuo et al.
Psychiatr. Serv. 2003;54:249-251.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Culture and Traumatic Events
Antai-Otong
J Am Psychiatr Nurses Assoc 2002;8:203-208.
ABSTRACT  

Update in Psychiatry
Schneider and Levenson
ANN INTERN MED 2002;137:671-677.
FULL TEXT  

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Trauma Exposure and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms: A Twin Study
Stein et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2002;159:1675-1681.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

A 46-Year-Old Man With Anxiety and Nightmares After a Motor Vehicle Collision
Stein
JAMA 2002;288:1513-1521.
FULL TEXT  

Nationwide Longitudinal Study of Psychological Responses to September 11
Silver et al.
JAMA 2002;288:1235-1244.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Stress Response Syndromes and Cancer: Conceptual and Assessment Issues
Gurevich et al.
Psychosomatics 2002;43:259-281.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Traumatic events in a general practice population: the patient's perspective
Mol et al.
Fam Pract 2002;19:390-396.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Risk Factors for Psychosocial Dysfunction Among Enrollees in the State Children's Health Insurance Program
Brickman et al.
Psychiatr. Serv. 2002;53:614-619.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Community Violence Exposure in University Students: A Replication and Extension
Scarpa et al.
J Interpers Violence 2002;17:253-272.
ABSTRACT  

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Yehuda
NEJM 2002;346:108-114.
FULL TEXT  

A National Survey of Stress Reactions after the September 11, 2001, Terrorist Attacks
Schuster et al.
NEJM 2001;345:1507-1512.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Lifetime Events and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in 4 Postconflict Settings
de Jong et al.
JAMA 2001;286:555-562.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Trauma, Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Associated Problems Among Incarcerated Veterans
Saxon et al.
Psychiatr. Serv. 2001;52:959-964.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Incidence and Prediction of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Severely Injured Accident Victims
Schnyder et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2001;158:594-599.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Near drowning: self therapy in situ
Ness and Macaskill
BMJ 2000;321:1604-1606.
FULL TEXT  

Prospective Study of Posttraumatic Stress, Anxiety, and Depressive Reactions After Earthquake and Political Violence
Goenjian et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2000;157:911-895.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Quality of Life in Individuals With Anxiety Disorders
Mendlowicz and Stein
Am. J. Psychiatry 2000;157:669-682.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

A Conceptual Framework for the Impact of Traumatic Experiences
CARLSON and DALENBERG
Trauma Violence Abuse 2000;1:4-28.
ABSTRACT  

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in post-traumatic stress disorder
Hidalgo and Davidson
J Psychopharmacol 2000;14:70-76.
ABSTRACT  

Intrusive Traumatic Recollections and Comorbid Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Depressed Patients
Carlier et al.
Psychosom. Med. 2000;62:26-32.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Previous Exposure to Trauma and PTSD Effects of Subsequent Trauma: Results From the Detroit Area Survey of Trauma
Breslau et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 1999;156:902-907.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Short Screening Scale for DSM-IV Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Breslau et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 1999;156:908-911.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT